Heads Up!: Artistic Guidelines for Sculpting the Equine Head

Introduction

Of all the aspects of the horse that could give a sculptor the most fits, it would probably be the head. My gosh—what a complicated structure! So many features, angles, alignments, shapes, landmarks, textures, and details to factor in, and then we have conformation and breed type complicating matters even more. And if that wasn't enough, horses have individual faces just like we do, and so each of our sculpted heads should be unique. And it's all crammed into a relative small, fiddly area. Is it any wonder then why so many artists pull their hair out as they sculpt one? 

Now I wrote a massive, 20-part in-depth series on the equine head in 2017 from a structural and functional point of view, "Heads Above The Rest." Parts 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18 are of particular interest as related to this post, being more geared more for artistic interests. Yet there are some additional artistic ideas we can learn and tricks we can apply that will make all this technical information a bit easier to translate into clay. So let's talk about a more artistic perspective now rather than such a clinical one. In this, we'll rely more on structural concepts rather than anatomical points to make these ideas more widely accessible across skill levels. So let's just dive in head first, shall we?

Brief Evolutionary Background of the Equine Skull for Perspective

The equine skull is large but nonetheless defined by efficiency—there's absolutely nothing about it that adds ornamentation or extra weight. This is due to the horse's evolutionary lifestyle: They eat abrasive grasses and run away fast in a straight line over long distances to escape predators. This is a grass eating, running machine. But the nutrients in grass are locked up in an abrasive silica shell (it's what keeps a blade of dead grass upright) that can only be released by being ground up into a mash to be processed by gut bacteria (in the cecum in the equine) into digestible nutrients the horse's body can absorb. And all that grinding of an abrasive substance necessitates a battery of large, constantly-growing long teeth. Grazing also requires a long diastema that projects the heads further forwards to nip off grasses while still keeping the eye high on the head to scan the horizon for predators. Put that all together then and we have the big, long head of the horse. However, the horse also has to be an efficient energy user to sustain a fast pace for a long time to survive predation, so a big head is actually a liability, right? So what's the solution? Well, no horns, antlers, or racks, and large sinus cavities to lighten the load, that's what. So the horse now has the benefit of a large, powerful jaw with big grinders and large sinus cavities for air intake but without the liability of a really heavy head that would slow him down. What's more, the head is predominately held up passively by the tension of the fan-shaped nuchal ligament, a powerful yellow ligament that lies deep inside the neck like a giant, robust rubber band. This means that horses expend minimal effort even holding their heads up, increasing efficiency even more. The horse is truly a marvel of evolutionary engineering! 

So what's the point? Well, evolutionary pressures shaped the horse's head a very specific way so it really doesn't have much plasticity without running into trouble fast. This is exactly why we don't see the extreme cranial variations as we see in dogs, for example. It also means that everything is there for a reason—nothing is superfluous. It's of a Spartan design that works purposely and beautifully. And this has implications for our sculpture, doesn't it? Indeed, when we veer too far into stylization, especially breedy stylization, we're aren't only compromising realism, we're also compromising the depiction of the animal's well-being. The head is the only means to intake air, water, food, sight, hearing, scent, and make vocalizations plus there needs to be room for all the roots of those big teeth. Aren't we obligated then to recreate it suitable for those biological needs first and "beauty" second? It's something important to consider.

Cranial Relationships and Alignments

Now let's look for structural relationships that can guide our hands with greater clarity. In this, we need a framework to build our head, something consistent enough to act as a template for the necessary comparisons but also allows for adaptability for all the variations out there. Even so, the equine skull does have some specific relationships that are universal despite all the variations based on breed, species, gender, age, and individuality. Now we've explored some in A Head Of The Pack: Basic Guidelines For Sculpting The Equine Head, and Structural Relationships: More on Equine Topography and Successful Sniffers: Tips For Sculpting Equine Nostrils, We're All Ears: Sculpting The Equine Ear, and Pleasin' Peepers: Sculpting The Equine Eye, some in The Three Ps, and some in that head series, specifically Part 14. Just please remember that while some associations are consistent anatomical alignments, others are only baselines, springboards for making the necessary adjustments as needed to fit the diversity we find in life. But we have to start somewhere, don't we? 

To that end, these are the universal alignments that don't really change with variation or conformation per se, being the most fixed:

• The last molar sits just in front of the eye, about near the middle of the teardrop bone, while the first premolar sits about midway under the Buccinators. 
• The back of the jaw should flow up to the back to its “button” underneath the zygomatics.
• The ear canal is aligned with the zygomatic arches and the orbit.
• From the front, we can form a "T" between the front canthi and the median line of the head. The same can be said for the tips of the teardrop bones, the nostrils (when symmetrically held), and the corners of the mouth (when symmetrically held). This helps us to maintain symmetry between the two sides of the face.
• The orientation of the eye has two general planes. The first angles inwards at the bottom and outwards at the top. The second angles slightly inwards at the front canthus.
• The top branch of the “Y” vein flows from the front canthus of the eye to the front of the teardrop bone while the second branch flows towards the nostrils.
• When seen from the front, the skull forms an elongated and inverted isosceles trapezoid due to the narrower mandible and broad brows.  
• The ears are set on the crown of the head, on the sides, seated into their cranial "cup" right behind the line of the jaw (rami) and behind the zygomatic arches on either side of the crown, in front of the occipital crest with the bulb and aligning with the EENA. This is perhaps the one of the most fixed anatomical features of the head, most consistent across the board.
• From beneath, the jaw bars form an elongated triangle, widest at the rami to meet each other at the chin. They’re rounded, not sharply rimmed, and have an underline that represents the individual characteristics of the particular horse.

Now these alignments can serve as a starting point to develop your necessary variations because they have more individual variability:

• From the front, the "V" at the bottom of the ear tends to sit on a plane parallel to the median to pass in front of the eyebrow flesh near the front canthi, depending on breed or individual variation. In other words, some breeds or individuals have wider or more narrow crowns which changes how close or far apart the ears are set.
• The alignment of the ear–eye–nostril (EENA) often forms a straight line. Notice that the teardrop bone and the mouth generally parallel the EENA, too. However, the EENA can vary between individuals, breeds, or species because...
• The internal axis of the skull is what tends to dictate head shape. Specifically, the equine head can be categorized into three basic types: (1) The arched or convex head, (2) the concave head, and (3) the straight head, with plenty of variation in between. What this means is that the axis of the head can be variable dependent on the individual, family, or breed, with a central axis being bent down, bent upwards, or straight, respectively speaking, beginning generally around the tip of the masseteric ridge. For example, many Iberian, Kladrubers, Murgese, Lippizzans, or Draft breeds can have a convex head in which the entire nasal portion of the skull drops downwards from the EENA, producing a distinctive “ram–head” appearance. In contrast, Arabians and some pony breeds may have a dished head in which the nasal portion is lifted slightly upwards from the EENA (though sometimes Arabians have a straight EENA but with a dished nasal bone and jibbah). In contrast, Morgans, Saddlebreds, stock breeds, and Thoroughbreds tend to have straight heads that more closely follow the straight line of the EENA. Now granted, there's a lot of diversity in all this, so regard those axis alignments as guides, not gospel. But it does mean that the shape of the head doesn't have to be created by the shape of the nasal bone alone, but also created deep inside the skull with its internal axis. This is why some sculptures that merely change the nasal bone without attending to the head axis may look odd. For example, they can appear too “dolphin-like” if a dish was created by gouging down the nasal bone with the added dome of the forehead. Sometimes we also see the jaw bars suffering reduction as well, making the head appear fluted, “seahorse-like,” or pinched in the middle (and when the nostrils are flared, we have an odd trumpet–like shaped head). On the other hand, a head can be made to be too deep if made to be more convex by simply adding a curve to the existing nasal bone. So remember to attend to the head axis first the deciphering references or sculpting.  
• The anterior and posterior canthi of the eye are angled at an approximate 42˚– 44˚ angle to the EENA. However, different individuals or breeds may vary. 
• The angle of the lower angle with the "button" of the zygomatic somewhat echoes this 42˚– 44˚ angle.
• Seen from the top of the head, looking down on it, the eyes are angled about 33˚ to the median line of the head. However, some breeds or individuals have more or less of an angle.
• When seen from the front (nose on), the top rim of the eye often protrudes a snidge farther out whereas the bottom rim of the eye often dips a snidge farther in, causing the plane of the eye to angle inwards at the bottom. However, some eyes can be more up-and-down due to natural variation, so look for that in your references and field study.
• When seen from the front, the brows are usually the widest portion of the cranium, with the bulge of the eyes themselves usually the widest part of the head itself. However, in horses with narrower heads, their brows can be about as wide as the ear bulbs. Also the eyes of senior citizens can be more sunken due to reduction of the fat pad behind the orb. On the other hand, on some muscular stock breeds such as the Quarter Horse, the robust jaw muscles over the ramus may be the widest part of the head.
• The chin usually ends somewhat near the back of the nostrils, or to varying degrees in front of it if they're droopy.
• When seen from the front, the “V” at the top of the nostril, where the rims meet, is oriented more towards the median than the lower aspect of the back rim, which protrudes more outward. This puts the nostril on an inward slant towards the top, predominantly along the back rim. In contrast, the comma cartilages tend to orient more upright, often with an elegant inward curve in the middle. However, some individuals can have more uprightly angled nostrils or nostril movement can distort this angle, so look for it in life study and your references.
• The zygomatics can exhibit some variety in how prominent and "cut" they are, so pay attention to all their diversity.
• The bulbs of the ears and the brows of the eyes are about as broad as the wings of the Atlas bone though there is some variation with how wide or narrow the top of the neck is, so look for that in your references and life study.

Serve it all up, and these handy guides can help us in the shaping of our equine heads with a lot more clarity. For example, when we understand that the ear, eye, and nostril are important landmarks that are skeletally oriented, that gives us better use of the EENA template, doesn't it? Another thing to remember is that the head is mostly subcutaneous bone on the dorsal and ventral aspect, and mostly subcutaneous or partially subcutaneous fleshy muscle along the sides. For this reason, we need to sculpt the bony parts convincingly as bone and the fleshy bits as flesh; otherwise our head won’t be as believable as it could be. For instance, the hourglass–shaped nasal bone should appear hard while the cheek’s Buccinators should appear fleshy. In contrast, the ears, lower nasal bone, and comma cartilages are made of cartilage and should appear appropriately firm but bendy. For example, the ear flute itself is relatively thin, making the ear malleable and able to be bent and distorted easily. 

As for relative head width, that's a function of individual, breed, and even gender and age variation. For instance, Arabians tend to be quite broad across the brows whereas Iberians can be quite narrow. Likewise, foals can appear broad across the brows thanks largely to the contrast with their undeveloped, narrow lower faces. Likewise, stallion heads can appear broader due to their cranial muscular development whereas mares can seem more slender. Paying attention to head width is important since it plays such a big part in the believability of our sculptures. 

On top of everything, the equine profile can exhibit a spectrum of undulating characteristics distinctive to each horse. Indeed, each of our profiles are different and so are those of horses. So we need to pay special attention to the horse’s profile to capture breed type and individuality. Again, all this presses the issue of studying heads from multiple angles and using references from multiple views. Honestly, the more angles and dimensions familiar to us, the better we are at translating it all into our clay. Plus, the more references we work from, of different angles, the better success we have at trouble-shooting problems. On that note then, always use good reference photos and learn to see the anatomical structures underneath the skin. Also make ready use of protractors, rulers, and proportional calipers—they’re your best friends when sculpting the head. Above all, field study field study field study! Get out there and observe the real deal and snap your own photos.

Basic Cranial Landmarks

Much of the equine skull is subcutaneous bone or nearly so, and so the head owes most of its shape and size to the skull itself, providing plenty of landmarks to guide us. In other words, the skull isn't defined by fleshiness so much like a human face, but more by bone. This is probably because the equine head has been "telescoped" forwards to project the incisors forwards and to make room for the battery of big teeth needed for nipping and grinding grasses, "stretching" his face forwards below his eyes. Most of this space then didn't "fill up" with lots of flesh or muscle, but kept a more Spartan structure of fascia, hide, and bone with thin, strappy muscles. The only really fleshy muscles are on his cheek and jowl, and of course the fleshiness of this muzzle and around the orbit. But this is great news since it provides us with lots of cranial landmarks to map out his skull accurately. Heck, even the muscles are often so obvious, some can serve as landmarks as well. So for the skull itself, the most obvious landmarks are:

• The masseteric ridge (teardrop bone)
• The zygomatic arches
• The Salt Cellar
• The nasal bone (and its median groove)
• The forehead (sometimes the temporal line, or the external frontal crest, can be felt, even seen on the forehead)
• The poll
• The jaw bars
• The caudal rim of the jaw (rami)
• The “button” underneath the zygomatics
• At a point just in front of the jowls in the hollow between the jaw bars, we can feel the underside of the Basihyoid bone of the Hyoid Apparatus (the swallowing mechanism)

The cranial cartilages are also palpable:

• The comma cartilages and its distal "button" at the end (sometimes we can even see it as a small bulge)
• The ear flute
• The ear bulb

Use all these landmarks as a connect-the-dots using the EENA as a guide, and you'll have a pretty good handle on the size, shape, axis, and structure of your sculpted head. Now here's the thing: The set of the eyes, the actual shape and length of the skull, the angle of the muzzle to the axis of the head, and the shape of the zygomatics can vary a bit from animal to animal based on individuality, breed, or species. However, remember that the set of the ears is an anatomical one so we can use that as a starting point to block out the rest of the head. So in sequence, think about blocking out the head thusly (you don't have to do the final sculpting of them yet, just get them in place:

1. Length of head
2. Axis of the head
3. Depth of head at the jowl and bars
4. Set of the ears based on the EENA and the back of the jaw
5. Set of the eyes based on the EENA and the ear (which we'll discuss in a bit)
6. Location of the nostril based on the EENA and the axis
7. Teardrop bone, often somewhat parallel to the EENA
8. Breadth of jowl
9. Zygomatic arches and temporal line
10. Angle of the mouth, often somewhat parallel to the EENA

Now maybe you have other methods that work for you better, but even so, think about checking your heads based on this sequence since it tends to map it out quickly and reliably. It's also a highly adaptable method for any kind of variation you find in life.

As for the teeth and gums, the front twelve incisors are easy to see if we lift the lips. The tushes are also easily seen from the side if inspecting a stallion or gelding (though sometimes a mare will have some or a full set). If we’re quick (and the horse is accommodating), we can even study the tooth surfaces of the incisors, too. The molars and possible Wolf’s Teeth (if present) are more difficult to see, so if we can observe a dental exam that uses a mouth speculum, it’s educational. Being so, we might even be able to catch a glimpse of the palantal drape, tongue, and the ridged hard palate.

The external aspects of the nostrils are easily palpated and observed. The front and back rims of the nostrils are evident as is the upper fold of the posterior rim over the anterior cartilage at the top "V" where the two rims meet. The tail of the comma cartilage can be palpated and sometimes seen as a subtle bump. The false nostril is abundantly clear when the horse flares their nostrils or snorts, too. The features on the muzzle can also be easily seen and felt from the lips to the chin to the whiskers (or just the whisker bumps if the whiskers have been shaved). The lips are easily seen and felt, and the corner of the mouth makes an important landmark. Likewise, the eye area can be gently felt from the eyelashes to the eyelids to the whisker bumps. The outer aspects of the ear flute, bulb, and its details are easily seen and palpated as well, even the medial and lateral crus of the medial helix.

Facial musculature can either appear as generalized, in moderate detail, or in "dry," crisp detail, depending on the breed, individual, management, climate, level of exertion, or circumstance. "Dryness" can also be expressed in different locations of the head with some areas in dry detail and others more generalized—it all depends on the individual and circumstances. Yet because the skull is mostly palatable under the skin, nearly every fleshy facial feature is a landmark, depending on how crisply it’s expressed. Yet six fleshy features are stand-outs as useful, relatively consistent orienting landmarks:

• Quadratus labii inferioris
• Levator labii sup. alæque nasi
• Caninus s. pyramidalis nasi
• Zygomaticus major
• Buccinator
• Masseter

All of these bony and fleshy landmarks help to guide our proportions, planing, and placements so we get things right. Really, the equine head is very precisely constructed so it's important to orient things properly. So continually recheck as you sculpt since things can go sideways rather quickly if you aren't paying close attention, especially if you become taken up in the magic of sculpting and lose sight of the big picture. In particular, sculpting expression tends to cause us to lose sight of the head's technicalities so keep those calipers and references close at hand and regularly recheck the EENA as you sculpt.

Basic Cranial Proportions

Because the equine skull has some common relationships, it also has another proportional set of baselines we can use to springboard into more adjustments as needed. Again, these are merely starting points to start creating our variations as needed for breeds, species, ages, individuals, and even genders. Even families within breeds can have their own cranial tendencies, so pay attention to that as well. So a few major proportional cranial relationships are:

• The length of the head in front of the eyes is elongated—the horse’s head is stretched forwards in front of the eye. Because of this, the typical equine head is usually divided into thirds: (1) From the base of the ear “V” to the front canthus of the eye then (2) from that point to mid-head then (3) from that point to the end of the muzzle. However, different breeds and individuals can vary. This means you have a quick way to properly place the eye between the ear and the EENA. Just make sure you don't place your eye on top of the tooth roots, i.e. too low.
• The depth of the skull from forehead to the bottom of the ramus is about 1/2 the length of the head, generally speaking. Some individuals or breeds may be more or less, and old horses are often less, especially through the bars, since their teeth have reached their terminal limit.
• Ear length is about that one-third measurement, with variation of gender, breed, age, and individuality.
• Muzzle depth is about that one-third measurement, with variation for breed, age, and individuality.
• Jowl breadth is about that one-third measurement, with variation for breed, gender, age, and individuality.

Basic Cranial Variations

Variations are the norm rather than the exception! Individuality, breed type, family tendencies, species distinctiveness, gender characteristics, and age growth stages all factor into all this diversity. Even nutrition can affect cranial development, and the horse's condition can affect how the head looks as well. For instance, foals have infant cranial structure, being less developed and "softer" in definition. In short, they aren't simply shrunk down adult heads. On the other hand, the heads of old horses can be more slender through the bars since their teeth have reached their terminal limit, narrowing the head a snidge. Plus their heads can appear more gaunt and bony from their diminishing nutrition because of their terminal teeth.

Basic Cranial Visualizations

So from an artistic point of view, we can block out the equine skull into some artistic structural ideas or shapes to help us along. Indeed, breaking down the horse’s head into simple shapes can help us quite a bit. So with that in mind, here are some helpful associations:

• The muscles of the mouth and cheek form a nested "M" and "W." However, the buccinators can be more like a solid wad of flesh or a slightly different configuration, too, depending on the individual's variation.
• The nostril forms a “6” on the right side and a backwards “6” on the left side. 
• The flute of the nostril forms a kind of "V" from the back of the posterior rim.
• The front rim of the alar cartilage of the nostril forms a “C” when relaxed and more of an “L” on its side when dilated. 
• The top aspect of the zygomatic arches is like a "U" oriented towards the poll while the lower aspect is like a "Y" oriented towards the ears.
• From the top, the nasal bone should be centered on the median line, and often has a subtle hourglass shape with rounded sides. The narrow "pinch" in the hourglass shape often occurs at the ends of the teardrop bones.
• The upper lip can be thought of as a little box that twitches, pooks, tweaks, stretches, and wiggles, being actively mobile.
• From the side, think of the skull in three parts: The "box" for the ears, the circle for the upper head, and the "shoebox" for the lower face. 
• From the front, we can think of the basic shape of the head is like a kite with a tail—a diamond for the forehead and the tail for the nasal bone.

Basic Ear Structures

I'm an ear geek so I pay very close attention to them when sculpting since they're just so darned complicated (and fun) to sculpt with their subtle curves and shapes. But not only is their structure complex, ear shapes are quite individualistic, too. No two pairs of ears are alike! What's more, ear size and shape can be a function of breed, gender, species, and age. For example, smaller, curvy ears are typical of an Arabian as is the pronounced curl of the Marwari. On the other hand, larger, longer ears are typical of a mare, and proportionally larger ears are common with foals. What’s more, some breeds actually require the ears to be a certain length such as the Shetland with ears that shouldn’t exceed 5” long (13cm). Also, the ears may be placed closer together on the crown on some breeds, too, such as the ASB, Kathiawari, Marwari and Akhal–Teke. This is usually caused by the narrower structure of the crown of such breeds as compared to the Arabian, Morgan, or Quarter Horse who tend to have wider crowns. So pay special attention to the varying attributes of the ear since all these factors play a part.

As for the ear itself, it's a delicately fluted “scoop" (pinna, plural: pinnae) with an inner (medial) rim that's more rounded and more deeply curvaceous with an outside (lateral) rim that's flatter and less curved. Of special note is the “V” where the two rims meet at the bottom since it has some interesting features. In particular, the bottom of the curvaceous medial rim, near the "V," has a curious fold created by the lateral and medial crus of the helix, which changes as the ear rotates, a detail often missed by artists. Instead, many artists simply make this area a straight rim by mistake, for instance. The ears have wrinkles, too, which are typically located where the pinnae meets the skull when rotation folds the skin. For example, when pricked forwards, wrinkles can be found between the pinnae and the head along the median line of the bulb whereas if they’re laid back, wrinkles can be found along the back of the bulb. The pinnae also often have visible veins, notably along the back of the flutes and around the ear bulbs, which really lend a sense of thin skin and fine hair for sculptures depicting hot bloods or even athletic effort. Now if the ears are clipped, note the soft, delicate ridges inside the ears. On the other hand, fuzzy, unclipped ears can be a wonderful touch for feral horses or those shown in a natural state. (Note: Some regulations now dictate against shaving out the ears.) Note that the ear hair is oriented inwards or forwards and not so much outwards, towards the rims. Also minor faults such as lop ears can add a bit of character to a piece meant to be eccentric. Likewise, ears with nicks, cuts, missing tips, etc. can imply an interesting backstory which can be effective for sculptures of feral horses, ranch horses, wild horses, or roughstock. In fact, certain breeds have specifically notched ears for identification such as the Icelandic Horse. Ear tags might also be a curious option, accurate for certain populations tagged for research. And because ears are a consummate tool for adding life to a sculpture, their expressive qualities go far to impart genuine equine character and narrative. For example, ears can be pricked and drawn together more when the horse is tense or intently focused on something, or drooping in a floppy “V" when the animal is sleepy, relaxed, or dozing off. They can be floppy and wobbly in response to motion, too, such as we see on some gaited horses (especially gaited mules), or when horses shake.

Other Thoughts on the Equine Head

Above all, remember the evolutionary biology of the equine head. It's a study of economy—every bit is there in a specific way for a critical biological reason. Being so, it has very little fudge–factor for our imposed aesthetics or misinterpretations. With so little room for error then, cranial structure cannot be fudged—we need to be clear about its construction to get it right. That's because so much about the equine head is literal with so much being subcutaneous flesh and bone. So if we make a mistake somewhere, that will likely develop into a systemic problem that will skew everything else. So check your placements against the EENA and the subsequent alignments often as you work.

Yet, at the same time, it's easy to get confused since so much is interlaced together, alternately becoming deep and superficial layers. It's also made up of all the fleshy components of the body: Bone, cartilage, fat, tissue, muscle, tendon, ligament, fascia, and hide, all of which are specialized for the head itself, giving us an array of structures and textures we have to mimic properly in a relative tight space. Plus, facial muscles come in multiple forms. For example, some are flat or strap–like like zygomaticus major while others have fleshy muscle bellies like the buccinators while still others are in-between like the masseter. And on a thin-skinned, “dry” face, much of the fleshy delineation is often readily seen, making precision even more important. So when recreating fascial musculature in clay, pay attention to these qualities when considering the shape and thickness of particular bits to avoid creating a head that’s too bulky, puffy, bulbous, or meaty, especially in the mid-face between the eye and nostril. What's more, pay close attention to detail and fleshy texture since the tiny aspects of the hide and skin on the face is so varied and often squishy and velvety. The ears, muzzle, and nostril exhibit a high degree of motility and sensitivity, too, and the brows and lower lid are fleshy and expressive, especially so with the upper lid and brow.  And thusly, we also have to consider expression which is a whole 'nuther subject in itself! 

All this conspires then to make sculpting the equine head especially tricky. Indeed, it's a part of the body most often flubbed up in sculpture for good reason. So it's a good idea to do lots of research, artistic exercises, checks and balances with proportional tools, life study, and of actually palpating the heads of many horses to program their features into our hands. 

Conclusion

Approaching the equine head from both an anatomical and artistic perspective can be helpful since each symbiotically informs the other. But being able to artistically understand things can be a more practical approach for a sculptor, allowing us to also "back trace" to the anatomy for another point of view. Truly, it's not enough to just know anatomy, we also have to translate what we know accurately into clay, right? That's where our artistry comes in. So while these two different knowledge bases need to be developed, they also need to be synced for the most effective interpretations in clay, and that takes its own special care and training.

For this reason, it's often handy to understand the equine head from multiple points of view. For example, from evolution to anatomy to conformation to breed type to viability to artistic visualizations and such, all of which conspire to give us a more rounded, complete view. Because, indeed, the head alone gives us plenty to chew on! And all the cranial features are interdependent, too, since we're also talking about a holistic system here. No aspect of the head functions as a biomechanical stand-alone. Therefore, understanding each feature separately as well as how it fits into the holistic whole isn't just informative, it's fascinating.

Because make no mistake—we need plenty of clarity when sculpting the horse's head. So much is going on in such a tight space and each aspect is completely dependent on the other for structure and placement that we have to hit our targets each and every time for it all to fit together properly. And that's the trick of it—if we develop a system to plot out our head efficiently, everything should fall into place like a connect-the-dots or jigsaw puzzle, and then it's simply a matter of banging it all out. To get to that point then, it just takes a lot of study, visualizations, and practice practice practice. For that, try some artistic exercises like drawing EENAs and other alignments onto photo print outs, doing sketches, and sculpting quickie maquettes (in non-hardening clay) to get practical volume under your belt. Because sculpting the head may be difficult, but it does get easier the more of them you sculpt. You'll also become more comfortable infusing eccentricities into your heads as you become more familiar with plotting out its basic structures. Indeed, you may soon find yourself collecting references of novel heads that inspire you as your fascination and confidence grows.

The horse's head is probably the most important part of the piece to pin down accurately. As a visual specials, we humans home in on the face instinctively, don't we? We just naturally key in on the face. So when we learn to sculpt more accurate heads on our sculptures, we're actually maximizing the connectivity our work has with the viewer. Why? Because the more accurate our sculpted heads, the more people are drawn to them in a positive way, and that spells good things for how our work connects with people. Absolutely, the horse's face is a direct line to the horse lover's heart. Mimic that effectively in your clay then and your work will come very close to triggering that same happy response they would have with a real horse, and that's a potent connection that gets horsepeople right in the feels in the best way. And what better way to get ahead is that?

"Simple is never that simple."

~ Phillip Roth

Heads Up!: Artistic Guidelines for Sculpting the Equine Head

We're All Ears: Sculpting The Equine Ear

Introduction

I admit, I’m a complete and total ear geek. It’s one of my most favorite parts of the horse to sculpt! They absolutely delight and fascinate me to no end so sculpting them is definitely a highlight of any sculpture for me. I so look forward to it every time. Why? Well, they lend so much appeal, expression, and moment to a piece, don’t they? Forward ears? Instant charm! Twitchy ears? Instant moment! Rotated back ears? Instant mood. Laid back ears? Instant drama! Wobbly ears? Instant fun! Droopy ears? Instant mellow. Love it! What’s more, they're such a technical challenge to sculpt with their complex structure and muscular system. The curves of the flute, the curious formations at the bottom “v,” their movements and tensions that express so much, just so much to factor in. And, of course, equine ears are so elegant and beautiful, even mule ears, donkey ears, and zebra ears are a peculiar brand of lovely. Everything about equine ears, I just love them! So yeah, when I say "I’m all ears,” I mean it!

But by golly—yes—are they a challenge to sculpt accurately or what?! Being so, many artists just sorta gloss over them, giving them a cursory treatment, which is completely understandable. They are very fiddly to get right. Unfortunately, too, finding good quality reference photos of their actual structure without any obscuring hair can be really difficult. See, to really tease out their detailed anatomy, the tricky bits of those fleshy structures, that ear has to be closely clipped and that sort of closeup shot is hard to come by if you don’t snap them yourself at a show. Photographers just don’t take close up images of clipped ears! Indeed, there are many more close ups of fuzzy ears than of clipped ones so many artists are simply sculpting blind. In an effort to fill a knowledge gap then, this discussion will dive into equine ear structure and some ideas on how to sculpt it. Hopefully then, the marvelousness of the equine ear will become more obvious, allowing you to better understand it and so better sculpt it, clipped or fuzzy. So let’s dive in!…

Basic Biology

The equine ear consists of three components: The outer, middle, and inner ear. The outer ear includes the pinna (plural: pinnae), the ear-shaped cartilage you see plus the ear canal. This cartilage gives the ear its peculiar shape and is covered in skin, hair, veins, and the ear muscles at the base or bulb. It’s seated into the skull in its special “cup” created by the parietal, occipital, and temporal bones of the skull, behind the ears and jaw, between the back of the zygomatic arch and the mastoid process of the temporal bone, behind which the paracondylar process of the temporal bone projects. The temporal bone contains the ear canal, the external auditory meatus, located about level with the condyle of the jaw.

The pinna is rolled into a concha, rounder and more curvaceous on the medial aspect and flatter and more sweeping on the lateral aspect. Each rim of the pinna is called the helix while the tip is called the apex, and the bottom “v” is referred to as the pre-tragic notch. On the medial helix at the bottom by this pre-tragic notch are the medial and lateral crus folds, important details of the ear often overlooked by artists. On the lateral helix on the other side of the notch is the inter-tragic notch, another important detail often overlooked by artists. However, these formations on either helix beside the bottom “v” can vary a wee bit between individuals so use the same reference photo for both ears so they match as a pair. The pinna also often has delicate ridges on its internal aspect which can be clearly seen when the ear is shaved out otherwise they’re hidden under ear fuzz.

The middle ear includes the ear drum, the oval window, and the eustachian tube. Then the inner ear entails the cochlea (for hearing) and the vestibular system (for balance). Both the middle and inner ear are beyond the scope of this discussion. 

Trivia: Did you know that the three small bones within the horse’s ear—the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes) bones—are the smallest in his body, collectively referred to as the auditory ossicles or just as the ossicles.

Utilizing about ten to sixteen muscles (depending on your reference), a horse can independently rotate each ear about 180˚, even able to relax them sideways or draw them up in a more upright position when fired up. (In comparison, people only have three muscles moving their ears while cats have thirty-two.) Generally speaking, the calmer the horse, the more sideways and low the ears hang in relaxation whereas the more pumped up the horse, the more upright and “tighter held” are the ears. A great many nerves lay at the base of the ear which may be why horses are so sensitive to having their ears touched. It’s also a bad idea to restrain a horse with an ear twitch or ear hold as this can’t only be destructive to the ear structures and surrounding muscles and nerves, but also because the ear is attached to the delicate petrosal part of the temporal bone (the petrosal part contains the balance and hearing mechanisms) and an ear hold can damage this bone or its connection to the skull. What’s more, this petrosal portion articulates with the hyoid apparatus in horses via the stylohyoid bone meaning that ear holds can also damage the hyoid apparatus, compromising the horse’s ability to swallow. In short, equine ears are very delicate, complex structures that always demand careful handling. Which also means when a horse is being fussy with ear handling, they aren't being unreasonable, they're practicing self-protection.

The equine ear is naturally filled with protective fuzzy hair that manifests in different ways between individuals so use a good reference photo, especially of the breed you’re depicting. Also keep in mind that a new regulation prohibits the shaving of ears so be aware of that as well. However, when the ear is closely clipped we can clearly see all the pinnae structures within the flute, the bottom “v” or pre-tragic notch, and the medial and lateral crus of the medial helix. (Tip: Going to Arabian, Morgan, stockhorse, and Saddlebred shows often gleans handy close-ups of shaved ears for structure shots.)

As for function, horses use their ears for three basic things. The first is balance. The vestibular system, the organ of balance, is located within the inner ear. This inner ear is a complicated maze of channels, set at different angles, that are fluid-filled and lined with countless sensory cells that signal both the auditory nerve (involved with hearing) and the vestibular nerve (involved with balance). This fluid acts like a level, telling the brain how the body is oriented whether standing or moving.

The second is hearing. Horses hear more frequencies than we do, especially in the higher and lower frequencies in the range of 55 to 33,500Hz (with their best sensitivity at about 1,000-16,000Hz) whereas people hear in the range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. For context, that means a horse may be able to hear the ultrasonic shriek of a bat which is why they’re more reactive to sound than we are. It’s also believed that horses can hear sounds up to 2.5 miles (4km) away, however, studies on equine hearing are ongoing so that’s just a rough estimate. In particular, horses are especially sensitive to the high-pitched squeaks, creaks, or cracks that could be caused by a creeping predator. For instance, a horse’s hearing ability up to 33,500 hertz is a lot more than a human. It’s no wonder then why they get so uppity in wind — they’re hearing a lot of sounds they can't easily identify, making them highly reactive. Horse’s even have the Pryer Reflex wherein sound automatically triggers the horse’s ear to prick towards it. It also means we don’t have to shout at horses for them to hear us as a low-voiced command is clear to them all the same. But overall, in essence, the horse’s hearing isn’t as developed as their sight, so what the ears do is to help direct their gaze, assisting the eyes in predator detection.

Then third, horses use their ears for communication. Horses are very expressive in their body language and the ears play a central part by communicating their focus or mood with their ear position and tension. For instance, ears pricked forward indicates a happy, curious horse interested in what is happening in front of them whereas ears laid back flat against the neck is a sign of high aggression and anger. In contrast, ears pricked backwards demonstrate interest in what’s happening behind them while droopy ears indicate a relaxed or sleepy horse then ears turned back sharply, but not laid on the neck can indicate a snarky, pugnacious, frightened or alarmed horse. Similarly, ears held back and tightly can indicate pain or stress. When not positioned, ears rotate actively, homing in on sounds happening around the horse, tending to always be in motion. 

Trivia: Did you know that the guttural pouch, unique to horses, is a diverticulum off the eustachian tube on each side of the head. It’s believed that the guttural pouches serve as an eddy space for high speed incoming and outgoing air during inhalation and exhalation when galloping to keep from creating a vacuum inside the head. How could this happen? Well, the speed air flow through the nasal passages when the horse is really galloping has been clocked at about 400mph. That's faster than an F5 tornado! So if this eddying pouch didn't exist, the resultant vacuum wouldn't only be devastating for the head but would also suck the eardrum into the nasal passages. So one of the primary functions of the pouches is to equalize pressure on both sides of the ear drum, particularly when galloping.

Placement Of The Ear

The location of the ear is an anatomical feature, not a conformational one. This means an error in placing the ear is a technical misstep, an error in realism, not one of aesthetics. So how do we know if we’ve placed our ear correctly? Well, a good place to start is knowing pretty well the cranium of the horse. Have a solid grasp of that, and you’re well on your way with ear placement. 

Now a handy way to check our work is the Ear-Eye-Nostril Alignment (EENA) which essentially places the ear for us. Now we do have to make allowances for a convex (like an Iberian) or concave head (like an Arabian), but basically the EENA often holds true. 

Another way to check our work is to make sure the ear lines up with the back of the jaw, as it should lie just outside of its sweeping curve. It also lies just in front of the wing of the Atlas bone, or the first cervical vertebra. Then from the front, the bottom “v” tends to align with the bulk of the fleshiness at the front of the eye, just in front of the front canthus. However, some horses have a more narrow crown, placing the ears slightly closer together, or a wider crown, placing the ears farther apart. So be sure to look for individual or breed variations in how broadly the ears are spaced on the head in your references and life study.

Sculpting Sequence

This discussion will be from the point of view of sculpting in epoxy clay, but many of the ideas offered can be adapted to oil clay, polymer clay, and ceramic clay. Plus, there are a couple of different ways to sculpt an ear in epoxy: First, shaping the flute in your fingers and popping it onto the head then, second, shaping the ear directly on the head. This discussion will deal with the latter which is my technique. Why? Because epoxy clay doesn't lend itself so well to pre-shaping ears and popping them on...it's too squishy and I work "too wet" with it, making it slump. Plus, you just won't get the accuracy and details you need with that approach with epoxy clay as it's too malleable as compared to oil, ceramic, or polymer clay. So instead, I create an ear armature first, then sculpt over that which you'll see in a moment. Now as for pose, we’ll be sculpting a forward-facing pricked ear but the same technique can apply to all ear positions.

• Make sure your sculpted skull structure has enough bulk on the sides of the crown so your sculpted ears won’t be set too close together or too inset into the skull. If you need more mass, bulk it up and let it cure.
• Identify the placement of the ear on your sculpted head with reference photos and measurements. You can pencil in the “cup” area where the bulb will be, too, to make this easier. Then I like to Dremel in that “cup” into the head to make more surface area for the epoxy to adhere to and to help me place the ear more accurately. Smoosh a small amount of epoxy clay into this area and really adhere it to the surface. This will be like a “glue” for the rest of your ear.
• For a 1:9 scale piece, take a dollop of epoxy clay about the size of a small almond and shape it into a pointed oval then gently squish the wide end into the cup onto your “glue” epoxy layer, leaving the other end upright. The wide bottom end will become the bulb and the freestanding pointed end will become the pinna. Really get that bottom part secure in that cup so you ear is firmly attached.
• Shape the bulb area best you can, making sure the area isn’t too bulky but just more like an armature because that’s what you’re doing—you’re making an ear armature. So as the epoxy stiffens, you can sculpt and pinch the pinna into a rough flute and basic shape. If it slumps, just correct it as the epoxy cures until it’s firm enough to hold its shape.
• Once fully cured, use a Dremel to reduce the bulk to rip it down to an armature, paying special attention to shape, size, and thinness of the rims. Once done and washed off and air dried, you’re ready to sculpt your actual epoxy ear. (Use all PPE, dust management, and manufacturer cautions when using a dremel and bits.)
• Mix up some fresh epoxy and mix in some 91% rubbing alcohol to make the blob gooshier and stickier. Mixing in some rubbing alcohol also increases the cure time which you want when shaping your ear. So keep mixing rubbing alcohol into it until it’s about the consistency of thick cake batter. Then smear this onto your armature with your fingers and sculpting tools then smooth out and generally shape it. Carefully shape and smooth out with your fingers and rubbing alcohol. Get the length right and the breadth and width, too. You're blocking in your ear right now so be as precise as possible with the dimensions. Then use a soft filbert brush (about size 4) and rubbing alcohol to smooth out the borders of the epoxy into the surrounding areas to a fine feather finish. Now let the epoxy rest about 20-30 minutes until it stiffens a wee bit.
• You can start to shape your ear now. I like to start by first defining each helix then the pre-tragic notch (or bottom “v”). Make sure your pinna is straight and the "v" is aligned with the eye properly from the front. Keep scale and anatomy in mind as you work as well. Block in the lateral and media crus of the helix and any wrinkles. Then gently smooth with the brush and rubbing alcohol again and then let that rest another 20-30 minutes.
• Once everything is blocked in, work with the cure time to refine and define, crispify and clean up structures and details until you’re done. Keep resmoothing as needed with the brush and rubbing alcohol.
• Be sure to check and recheck your measurements and placement so you don’t go off-track as you sculpt.
• Now let that cure completely. When it is, further refine, hollow out the ear, and thin out the rims with a Dremel with diamond-tipped bits. In particular, I like to use a teardrop shaped bit for this step. (Again, use all manufacture precautions and PPE when using a dremel tool.)
• Wash it off carefully and let it air dry. Then squish a teeny blob of epoxy clay inside the pinna to add in the ear ridges and smooth to a feather finish with the brush and rubbing alcohol and let cure. And then voilá…done!
• Now simply repeat with the other ear which, admittedly, is easier said than done. That whole bilateral symmetry thing…uffdah. But you can do it! Then…whammo…finito!
• If you want to make fuzzy ears, add in the hair now. Sculpt, smooth, and let cure. In this, I recommend sculpting a fully complete ear before adding fuzz so you have that structural integrity there.

Things To Keep In Mind

As we work, it's very easy to go off-track as we get caught up in the sculpting process. So always check your work with calipers and your references. On that note, don't forget certain things like...

• When forward, equine ears curve inwards at the tips, not outward, so remember this when rotating them. So always think of how their tips would orient if they were pricked forwards.
• Ears flutes are thin cartilage so try not to make your ears so thick as to compromise the impression of delicacy. At the same time, however, also consider casting concerns and shipping sturdiness—it’s a delicate balance between all these issues. Even so, the more delicate you can make your ears look, the better. (Tip: A handy trick to make your ears look more delicate is to make the rims appropriately thin regardless of the thickness of the rest of the ear.)
• The medial helix of the equine ear is more rounded and curled inwards whereas the lateral helix is flatter. However, they aren’t razor-thin but are slightly rounded along the edge.
• Seating the ear properly into the skull is really important. Not only is it important for the accuracy of the ear itself, but other head measurements depend on it. So make prior measurements to be as accurate as possible and recheck often as you work against your references.
• Proportion is everything with ears, make them too small or too big and they won’t look right. A guiding baseline measurement for the typical horse ear is about equal the distance from the bottom “v” of the ear to the front canthus of the eye, give or take for breed, age, gender, or individual variation. For instance, ear proportion can be gender-linked. As such, stallions tends to have smaller ears whereas mares tend to have big ol’ mare ears. Ear size can be age related as well as foals often have ears “they have to grow into.” Likewise, exotics have their own sizes (and shapes) that need careful attention. So bear all that in mind when sculpting them and use good reference photos.
• Nailing the correct curves of the flute is really important, but notice that those curves change as the ear is rotated by the cartilage being morphed as the ear moves. For example, each helix can be shaped a little differently when the ear is pricked forwards as when it’s rotated back and especially when it’s laid back. That means careful field study and lots of quality reference photos are in order, those specific to the ear position you wish to recreate. So pay close attention to how shape and position are related.
• There’s a huge degree of individual variation with ears! Each horse really does sport their own set of ears, which is so fun, so don’t be afraid to explore that variety in your body of work.
• Different breeds often have different ear characteristics, sometimes as a point of breed type. For example, there’s the the Marwari or Kathiawari with their curly ears, but there’s also the Arabian and their curvaceous, tipped ears, the Teke with their spade-like ears, and the Saddlebred with their long, elegant ears. Drafters often have substantial “plainer” ears whereas stockhorses or Thoroughbreds can have dainty, pricked ears. And pony ears are their own thing in many ways, being so small and cuter. In fact, tiny ears can be a point of breed type with many pony breeds to pay attention to that in particular. Overall then, be mindful of breed distinctions when designing your ears.
• The ears on exotics like mules, donkeys, zebras, and hemonids are their own thing so be sure to find as many references photos as possible to work from. The different zebra species can even have their own specific kinds of ears as can donkeys so be aware of that, too. Like you can’t put Grevy’s Zebra ears on a Plains Zebra, or Pega Donkey ears on a burro. All that said though, they are still just variations on the basic horse ear so once you understand how to sculpt that, exotic ears make a lot more sense to sculpt.
• Ears often have veins running up along the bulbs up onto the flute so look for those in case you’d like to add those on your sculpture.
• The lower “v” where the two rims meet can shift from an open “v” to a more closed slit depending on ear position, so pay attention to that aspect.
• Note any wrinkling at the base of the ear, especially between the bulb and the crown, as that’s a neat detail to add.
• Notice how the ear muscles distort and shift as the ear is rotated, important features to capture for realism and detail.
• Look for any tension or relaxation in how the ears are held as that speaks to the horse’s mood or temperament.
• Pay attention to the state of the ears, especially on feral horses like injuries, frostbite, notches and the like as they can be important details for realism or narrative. Indeed, Icelandic horses sometimes have owner-identifying notched ears which may be an important detail to add.

Sculpting Tips

As we work, any tidbit that can make our job easier is a boon. Indeed, ears will always present a happy challenge, so here are some pointers you might find helpful...

• Think of the ear as a kinda ball on the bottom with a tube on the top that swivels in its “cup” in the skull at the base. Now granted, that’s really simplified, but it helps to visualize what’s going on when it rotates.
• A dremel tool with a flex-shaft can be your best friend when it comes to epoxy work. Just adhere to all safety protocols such as wearing the proper PPE, managing dust well, and watching those fingers! (Tip: A butcher’s glove is a great thing to wear on your sculpture-holding hand for dremeling.)
• Useful dremel bits to use are the diamond-tipped small ones, particularly the tear-drops, cones, and ball shapes. I also like to use a cone-shaped dremel tungsten cutter to rip down the initial epoxy formation to make the epoxy armature which I can sculpt over in fresh epoxy for the final ear. If I’ve done my job right, I really won’t need those diamond bits too much except to maybe refine certain portions a little bit and to hollow out the ear more.
• Try not to shape the ear too much with dremel bits as their rough finishes can be hard to sand, especially on a delicate little ear. Instead, try to do your final ear in epoxy, fully smoothed and ready to paint because this preserves all those details and doesn’t risk breaking your delicate ear.
• I like to dremel out a hollow or “cup” in the ear area on the head which my initial epoxy ear will seat into. It improves adhesion by increasing the surface area, and this also helps me to place the ear better.
• With a fuzzy ear, fuzz tends to angle inwards to protect the inner ear, but some portions can protrude forwards or outwards, too. Use good reference photos.
• Use your calipers religiously to ensure proper size of both the length and width of the ears. I like to use proportional calipers especially because they offer quick and easy proportional measuring with handy pointed tips.
• Ensure symmetry between ears with calipers. Like measure the ears from the bottom of the “v” to the apex to match them as a pair. Then measure their width and their depth, and make adjustments.
• If using epoxy clays and some polymer clays, 91% rubbing alcohol is a handy solvent for smoothing, used with soft brushes to soften and smooth details and surfaces. Works great! But for oil clays, try Goo Gone or turpenol*. And, of course, for ceramic clays, clean water is proper (just be conservative with the water if using grog-filled clay as it can bring out the grain).

(*Turpenol is a 40/60 ratio of turpenoid and 91% rubbing alcohol. It’s far less aggressive than Goo Gone so it’s great for a final smoothing or if you just want something gentler. Goo Gone is highly aggressive so use it sparingly, like don’t soak your piece with it or you’ll end up with a melted mess especially with something as delicate as an ear.)

Common Mistakes

It's easy for our ears to go haywire, especially as we sculpt and get caught up in it all. But there are some common missteps we can inadvertently make, such as...

• Misplacement of the ear: If the ear is placed too far forwards or too far back on the head. 
• “Perched” ears: Ears that aren’t seated into the “cup” of the skull but sit “perched” on top of the head. They’re often placed to close together as well.
• “Crammed” ears: Ears that are situated too far down on the skull.
• Overly angled ears: When the ears are angled on the head too acutely for the head position.
• Asymmetrical ears: When they don’t match in dimension.
• Crooked ears: When the pinnae aren’t straight.
• Wrongly tipped ears: When the tips of the ears are facing outwards rather than inwards.
• Missing the lateral and medial crus of the helix: Most sculptures are missing this critical detail.
• Misgendered ears: Now granted, there’s always individual variation, but be mindful of gender differences with ear dimensions.

Conclusion

They say “the eyes are the windows of the soul” yet when it comes to horses, their ears are equally revealing, the tokens of their psyches. Absolutely, a horse’s ears speak of their internal landscape quite loudly and being so, add a potent touch to your sculpture that can take it right over the top! 

Ears are also an anatomical feature, not a conformational one, so get them right, and your head will read correctly, but get them wrong…and not so much. As such, ear placement and structure can make or break the accuracy of your sculpted head, so take great care. Ears should never be considered as afterthoughts. They are their own thing, just as important as the eye, nostril, and muzzle. But with some patience, good references, and some practice you, too, can sculpt a wonderful set of ears!

Truly, if you pay attention to the ears with a keen eye and careful touch, you’ll find that the realism of your sculpture improves exponentially plus the narratives you build will become more compelling, and all thanks to two little flutes flicking about on the top of the head. Indeed, without a doubt, beautifully sculpted ears are ear-replaceable as the crowning touch!

The principles of true art is not to portray, but to evoke.

— Jerzy Kosinski

We're All Ears: Sculpting The Equine Ear